Advaita
Table of Contents
Introduction
Man is often described as a rational animal. Once the animal in him is reasonably satisfied by the provision of basic biological and some psychological needs, the rational part gets an opportunity to evolve to higher levels. Philosophy, including metaphysics, is one of the highest aspects of this evolution.
Darśanas
The Indian philosophical systems have developed not only as a result of intellectual speculation but also of mystical intuition. Hence the name darśana (literally, ‘seeing’) is usually applied to them. The topics most commonly discussed by these darśanas are generally four in number:
- Nature of the physical world, its origin and evolution
- Nature of man and other living beings;
- Existence of God, His nature and attributes
- The goal of human life and the way of attaining it.
Different standpoints and differing views of these topics of discussion have naturally led to a variety of schools. These schools are broadly divided into two classes: the āstika and the nāstika. The former accept the authority of the Vedas whereas the latter do not.
Vedānta Darśana
The Vedānta Darśana is the last of the former schools but has gained the most important place among them. A judicious combination of reasoning and acceptance of the authority of the Vedas as well as a long unbroken tradition are responsible for its gaining the prominent place.
Although the prasthānatraya (“the three great paths”), namely the Upaniṣads, the Brahmasūtras, and the Bhagavadgītā, are the basis of the Vedānta Darśana, it is the Brahmasūtras (also called Vedāntasūtras and Śārīrakasūtras) of Bādarāyaṇa that occupies the key position. The sūtras (aphorisms), being quite terse and often ambiguous, have naturally led to widely differing interpretations, resulting in the three well-known systems of Vedānta: Advaita, Viśiṣṭādvaita, and Dvaita.
The word Vedānta itself means “the end” or “the essence of the Vedas.” It is the Upaniṣads that mainly comprise the Vedānta since they normally form the last part of the Vedic literature and contain the quintessence of their teaching.
Advaita Vedānta
The Advaita Vedānta Darśana owes its systematisation as a formidable doctrine to Gauḍapāda (7th–8th century A.D.) who wrote his famous Kārikās on the Māṇḍūkyopaniṣad, and Śaṅkara (A.D. 788–820). Śaṅkara’s commentaries on the prasthānatraya and also a few independent treatises form the bedrock on which the later Advaitins built their edifice.
Brahman, the Only Reality
Advaita means “non-dual,” “one without a second.” The system derives this nomenclature from the fact that it recognises Brahman (the Absolute) as the only reality and denies permanent reality to the world as also to the individual souls. The entire edifice of Advaita metaphysics is built upon the foundation that Brahman is the only reality, brahma satyam. This premise is based firmly on the famous Upanishadic statement:
सदेव सोम्य इदमग्र आसीत्, एकमेवाद्वितीयम्
sadeva somya idamagra āsīt, ekamevādvitīyam
“Dear (Śvetaketu)! In the beginning (before creation) Reality (or Brahman) alone existed, the one without a second.”
– Chāndogya Upaniṣad, 6.2.1
Anirvacanīya Khyāti
The world of multiplicity is a matter of our day-to-day experience. It becomes necessary to explain how Brahman, the One without a second, appears as this world of multiple names and forms. The explanation offered by Advaita is anirvacanīya-khyāti, its theory of erroneous cognition which defies logic.
Perceiving silver in nacre in moonlight or snake in rope in insufficient light are stock examples given by Advaitins. In both cases, there is an erroneous perception brought about by the impression of silver and snake from an earlier idea, superimposed now upon nacre and rope under favourable conditions. This superimposition, called adhyāsa or adhyāropa, is responsible for mithyājñāna (false knowledge) that the object perceived is silver or snake.
The silver or the snake perceived is neither sat (real) nor asat (unreal). It is not unreal like “the son of a barren woman” since it is actually perceived. Neither is it real since it disappears when the substratum is perceived as it is. To explain this peculiar phenomenon, Śaṅkara creates a third type of perceived objects: sad-asad-vilakṣaṇa (different from both the real and the unreal). The khyāti or cognition itself is described as anirvacanīya, incapable of any precise definition.
Ajnāna or Avidyā
The basic cause of this erroneous perception is termed as ajnāna or avidyā (ignorance), which is said to be bhāvarūpa (existent) and endowed with two powers: āvaraṇaśakti (veiling power) and vikṣepaśakti (transforming power). It veils the true nature of nacre and rope, showing up silver and snake in their place by apparent transformation.
Such transformed appearance is called vivarta of the original, and the theory propounding this is Vivartavāda. Since this avidyā does not make the substratum disappear but makes them appear as something else, it is described as bhāvarūpa.
Māyā
An attempt is made to explain how this world of duality has evolved from the non-dual Reality called Brahman in the Upaniṣads. The world of duality can be broadly divided into dṛk (the seer) and dṛśya (the seen), and further into innumerable jīvas (living beings) and countless objects of creation.
Brahman, the indivisible Reality, appears divided due to avidyā, causing the one Ātman (Self) to appear as many jīvas. It is māyā that causes the world of phenomena and is avidyā at the cosmic level.
Three Degrees of Reality
Śaṅkara accepts three degrees of reality:
- Prātibhāsika-satya (apparent truth, illusory appearance) – illustrated in wrong perception of silver in nacre or snake in rope.
- Vyāvahārika-satya (practical reality) – illustrated by the world of daily experience, true for day-to-day existence.
- Pāramārthika-satya (absolute reality) – the highest Truth, which is Brahman or Ātman without attributes (nirguṇa) and forms (nirākāra), incapable of being described except in “neti, neti” (“not this, not this”).
Creation
Brahman associated with māyā is Saguṇa Brahman or Īśvara (God, the Bhagavān of creation). This aspect of Brahman is responsible for creation, preservation, and destruction of the world. For Śaṅkara, the world process is only a vivarta (illusory appearance) due to adhyāsa on Brahman.
Although śruti (Upaniṣads) describe the steps of evolution, Śaṅkara regards them as taṭasthalakṣaṇa (casual indicators) that help direct seekers to the truth, while Brahman’s true nature (svarūpalakṣaṇa) is sat-cit-ānanda (eternal reality, pure consciousness, unalloyed bliss).
Jīva
This Brahman or Ātman, which is sat-cit-ānanda, has inexplicably become involved in the body-mind complex due to avidyā. This involvement, with avidyā stated to be anādi (beginningless), causes the Ātman to be designated as jīva.
The jīva, Ātman in bondage, has five kośas (sheaths) and three śarīras (bodies), performs actions motivated by desires, experiences pleasure and pain due to karma, and undergoes transmigration until liberation. Śaṅkara declares that when the jīva is stripped of upādhis (limiting adjuncts), it is identical with Brahman as its essential nature is sat-cit-ānanda.
Sādhanās and Mukti
The main reason for Ātman identifying as jīva is tādātmya (false identification) with the mind and body due to adhyāsa. The remedy is apavāda (de-superimposition) by denying this identification through sādhanacatuṣṭaya (fourfold discipline):
- viveka (discrimination between eternal and non-eternal),
- vairāgya (dispassion),
- śamādiṣaṭka (six virtues like self-control),
- mumukṣutva (desire for liberation).
One should approach a competent guru and learn through śravaṇa (hearing), manana (reflection), and nididhyāsana (contemplation). The mahāvākyas (“That thou art”, “I am Brahman”) produce deep conviction of one’s identity with Ātman.
Through nididhyāsana, one can practice de-superimposition, realizing “I am not the body, senses, mind, or ego,” leading to mukti or liberation even while living (jīvanmukti). After the body falls off, one attains videhamukti (liberation from future bodies), the continuity of the body in jīvanmukti being due to prārabdha-karma.
Jīvanmukti and Videhamukti
Two kinds of mukti are envisaged in Advaita: jīvanmukti (liberation while living) and videhamukti (liberation after death). The Vivaraṇa school upholds that mukti is simultaneous with jñāna, making jīvanmukti possible. The Bhāmatī school holds that even after jñāna, the body’s continuation due to prārabdha-karma implies a trace of avidyā, which ends with the body’s death, leading to videhamukti.
Locus of Avidyā
A frequently discussed topic in Advaita metaphysics is the locus of avidyā. Since Brahman is the only reality, it alone is the āśraya (locus) and viṣaya (object) of avidyā. This view is held by Sureśvara and Padmapāda. In contrast, Vācaspati Miśra holds that jīvas are the loci of avidyā, with each jīva having its own avidyā.
Post-Śaṅkara Advaita
Although Śaṅkara wrote prolifically, clearly enunciating his doctrines, there are places where aspects of doctrines remain vague or open to multiple interpretations. The growth of post-Śaṅkara Advaita literature led to various prasthānas (schools of thought):
Vārttika-prasthāna
Founded by Sureśvara (9th century A.D.), this school is named after the vārttikās (commentaries in verse) on Śaṅkara’s bhāṣyas on the Bṛhadāraṇyaka and Taittirīya Upaniṣads. According to this school:
- Brahman is the material cause of the world, not māyā.
- The locus of avidyā is Brahman, not the jīvas.
- Avidyā is one only, not many.
- Mahāvākyas can directly produce cognition of the Self as Brahman, making meditation on their meanings unnecessary.
- The jīvas are but ābhāsas (fallacious appearances) of Brahman in individual minds.
This theory is known as Ābhāsavāda, contrasted with Pratibimbavāda and Avacchedavāda.
Vivaraṇa-prasthāna
Attributed to Padmapāda (9th century A.D.) and Prakāśātman (A.D. 1200), named after the Pañcapādikāvivaraṇa. Key doctrines include:
- Avidyā as jaḍātmikā śakti (force of material nature), the material cause of the world.
- Avidyā is bhāvarūpa (a positive entity), but not real.
- Synonyms include māyā, prakṛti, avyakta, avyākṛta, tamas, and śakti.
- Called avidyā when āvaraṇa power dominates, māyā when vikṣepa power dominates.
- Māyā at the cosmic level, avidyā at the individual level.
- Avidyā rests on Brahman but acts on the jīvas.
- Jīvas are pratibimbas (reflections) of Brahman in the antaḥkaraṇa (mind).
This theory is known as Pratibimbavāda, contrasted with Ābhāsavāda.
Bhāmatī-prasthāna
Established by Vācaspati Miśra (A.D. 840), centred on his commentary Bhāmatī on Śaṅkara’s Brahmasūtra Bhāṣya. This school holds:
- Brahman is the material cause of the world but not the locus of avidyā.
- Avidyā is supported by jīvas and māyā is an accessory cause.
- Avidyā cannot abide in Brahman, but in the jīvas, and is plural.
- Vācaspati distinguishes:
- mūlāvidyā (kāraṇāvidyā, primal nescience)
- tūlāvidyā (kāryāvidyā, derivative nescience)
This school leans toward Avacchedavāda (theory of limitation) where avidyā limits Brahman like a pot limits space, making it appear as a jīva. Mahāvākyas do not produce immediate cognition; it is the mind seasoned by meditation that does so.
Other Notable Doctrines
- Dṛṣṭisṛṣṭivāda: The world is created simultaneously with perception.
- Ekajīvavāda: There is only one jīva in bondage; upon its liberation, everything else disappears.
Prakāśānanda (15th–16th century A.D.) is the chief proponent of these views.
Polemical Literature
Criticism from other Vedāntic schools and Buddhists led to the growth of polemical Advaita literature, with two significant works:
- Khaṇḍana-khaṇḍa-khādya by Śrīharṣa (12th century A.D.)
- Advaitasiddhi by Madhusūdana Sarasvatī (16th century A.D.)
It is to the credit of Advaita Vedānta that even now, it attracts respectful attention from scholars of the highest calibre, both Eastern and Western.
Sources and References
- Three Systems of Vedanta, an Introduction by Swami Harshānanda